“For we must consider that we shall be as a city upon a hill. The eyes of all people are upon us. So that if we shall deal falsely with our God in this work we have undertaken, and so cause Him to withdraw His present help from us, we shall be made a story and a by-word through the world.” – John Winthrop on board the Arbella, 1630
These words were originally spoken by Governor Winthrop in a sermon to soon-to-be Massachusetts Bay colonists, warning them that the eyes of the world would be upon them. The actual influence of his sermon is debatable, but Governor Winthrop’s mentality is one that has pervaded almost every aspect of what it means to be American. The idea that the United States of America is somehow different than other nations is something that many Americans take for granted.
Perhaps it’s because the United States was formed not by cultural ties or backgrounds, but by an ideological likeness – that every man has the right to the preservation of life, liberty, health, limb, or goods of another, as John Locke put it so eloquently. Perhaps it’s because America was the ultimate religious experiment, established as a true City on a Hill.
Thomas Paine echoed Locke’s ideas in his pamphlet Common Sense over one hundred year later, in 1776:
“We have it in our power to begin the world over again. A situation, similar to the present, hath not happened since the days of Noah until now.”
Or moreover, perhaps the mentality that the United States is an exception is linked to the notion of Manifest Destiny, which was proposed an exclamation of American virtue, mission, and destiny (Weeks).
Why do Americans feel that they are different – that somehow the seemingly binding laws of culture, country, love and war don’t apply? The idea can be distilled into one topic: American Exceptionalism.
American Exceptionalism
The concept that has come to be known as American Exceptionalism is the belief that the United States is qualitatively different from other nations because it was founded on a distinctly different ideology. Josef Stalin was the first person to use the term in 1929 when he berated members of the American Communist Party in the United States for thinking that their take on Communism should be anything different than the laws dictated by Karl Marx.
The roots of the notion of American Exceptionalism stem from the Puritan view that New England was humanity’s second chance at salvation. John Winthrop’s “city on a hill” metaphor is used often as a marker of exceptionalist feelings.
In his essay American historian Howard Zinn writes, “The idea of a city on a hill is heartwarming. It suggests what George Bush has spoken of: that the United States is a beacon of liberty and democracy. People can look to us and learn from and emulate us” (Zinn). The idea of the America as a beacon of hope is a truly uplifting concept – so much so that U.S. Presidents can’t help but use the coined phrase.
John F. Kennedy used the expression in his last address to the public before assuming office. It was meant to be empowering in the darkness cast by the Vietnam War. Ronald Reagan used the expression to cast hope into the American hearts, dampened by the fear of a Cold War. He stated: “Four years ago we raised a banner of bold colors – no pale pastels. We proclaimed a dream of America that would be ‘a shining city upon a hill.’”
Zinn combats the idea that the peoples of America were a shining light for the rest of the world by demonstrating the cruel atrocities that Americans were responsible for over two centuries. Just years after Winthrop’s famous words, the Puritans laid siege to the Native Americans, in an effort to cleanse the Earth. Two hundred years later American soldiers slaughtered 600,000 Fillipinos in the Spanish-American War (Zinn). These are just two of the countless examples Zinn offers to paint a rather bleak impression of American foreign policy.
Zinn argues that American Exceptionalism has been used to justify wars in which the United States has been the bully, and other nations have been victim. The threat of Soviet Russia’s widespread influence was the United States’ justification during the Cold War. Afterward, communism was transformed into terrorism, and the perceived threat continued to justify expansion. Zinn contends that the threat of terrorism does exist, but that it was exaggerated to the point of near-hysteria. To this end, the United States government has justified its continued foreign “power plays” and deftly maneuvered increasing sphere of influence.
While the idea of American Exceptionalism has hampered American progress in some regards, it has also led to the progress of many American businesses. Ed Feulner states that the accomplishments achieved in the lifetime of Steve Jobs are uniquely American. (Feulner). He argues that the boldness to create a new type of technology is a characteristic that is American and that is bred here. It is hard to argue that the notion of American Exceptionalism alone created the success that was Steve Jobs. He certainly was a special person, and a national hero in many ways.
Perhaps the idea of American superiority is best summed up by Seymour Martin Lipset:
“In Europe, nationality is related to community, and thus one cannot become un-English or un-Swedish. Being an American, however, is an ideological commitment. It is not a matter of birth. Those who reject American values are un-American” (Lipset).
Where does the notion that American values breed American excellence come from?
Lake Wobegon Effect/Illusory Superiority
A commonly known psychological phenomenon known as Illusory Superiority actually gained attention in the 1970s and 80s because of a well-known radio program hosted by Garrison Keillor, called A Prairie Home Companion.
The show was set in fictional Lake Wobegon, where “all the women are strong, all the men are good looking, and all the children are above average.” The Lake Wobegon Effect, came to be known as the cognitive bias that causes a person to overestimate their abilities. This is the same phenomenon as Illusory Superiority, however the Lake Wobegon Effect is the more commonly-used name.
One of the most commonly used studies is that of comparison to the mean. In one such study of MBA students at Stanford, 87% ranked themselves as above the average student (Zuckerman). The pathology of the phenomenon is unknown but it has been linked to an overestimation of ability and potential failure. So are Americans just the victim of uncontrollable pathologies of their brains? Did the United States insert itself into Vietnam in the 1960’s with false confidence? Are Americans just doomed because of the phenomenon known as Illusory Superiority?
Not likely, since humans across the world are subject to the same brain pathology as Americans. For now, Illusory Superiority will have to serve as an aside, but continued research into this topic may one day hold the key to cognitive self-bias.
American Narcissism
Dr. Jim Taylor, a professor of Psychology at the University of San Francisco, recently wrote an interesting article on the occurrence of advancing narcissism in the United States. Taylor points to the replacement of “us” and “we” with “I “ and “me” in literature. He also points out vain and egocentric personalities in Hollywood like Charlie Sheen and Kanye West (Taylor).
The advent of American narcissism can be directly linked to a wired age. Posted messages, pictures, and videos al are available for friends to offer instant feedback. And as we all know, bad attention is better than no attention. It’s no surprise either that American families are becoming increasingly nurturing to their young sons and daughters. Gone are the days when parents would let their children play in the streets unattended by an adult. Perhaps all of the attention that children are getting when they are young creates a hunger for the same levels of attention later in life.
Perhaps some element of this narcissistic trend has overflowed into the United States persona. It is a well-known fact that the United States is not viewed as the most courteous nation, and other countries tend to loathe American tourists. But Americans don’t seem to care. Is it simple ignorance or arrogance by choice?
As is done with any aversive trait, the first step in weeding out this trend is awareness. I do believe that Americans are becoming more aware of their general dislike by the rest of the world. I think that this is a problem that can be solved slowly.
Conclusion
It’s hard to say definitively that the concept American Exceptionalism is a bad thing. It is true that the United States is in no way exempt from political ideals that govern the rest of the world, but is it so bad to think that it is in some way better? Sure, foreign policy shoudn’t reflect apathy towards the woes of other nations, but national confidence isn’t something to shy away from either.
The United States, though entrenched in national debt, is still one of the strongest economies in the world, and investors around the world continually invest in the American dollar. Perhaps this confidence has crippled us in many ways, but in other ways it has given us the boldness to take bold economic risks, to have the confidence to declare war on most powerful entities in the world.
All in all, the concept of American Exceptionalism is slowly dying, especially in regards to superiority. It is going to be hard for even the most devoted Americans to justify why the United States is the best nation in the world when it is eventually eclipsed by the growing economies of China, India, and Brazil. However, it is to the credit of the notion of American Exceptionalsim that has gotten the United States to its current place of prominence in the world. If the world wasn’t watching after John Locke spoke those famous words, then it certain was when it became the international peace-keeper in the 20th century.
Works Cited
Feulner, Ed. "Steve Jobs and American Exceptionalism." Wilson County News. 14 Oct. 2011. Web. 15 Oct. 2011. <http://www.wilsoncountynews.com/article.php?id=38739>.
"It's Academic." 2000. Stanford GSB Reporter, April 24, pp.14–5. via Zuckerman, Ezra W.; John T. Jost (2001). "What Makes You Think You're So Popular? Self Evaluation Maintenance and the Subjective Side of the "Friendship Paradox"". Social Psychology Quarterly (American Sociological Association) 64 (3): 207–223.
Kennedy, John F. ""City Upon a Hill" Speech." Miller Center. 9 Jan. 1961. Web. 15 Oct. 2011. <http://millercenter.org/president/speeches/detail/3364>.
Lipset, Seymour Martin. "American Exceptionalism: A Double Edged Sword." The Washington Post. 1996. Web. 15 Oct. 2011. <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/americanexceptionalism.htm>.
Locke, John. "Second Treatise of Civil Government: Chapter 2." Index. Web. 15 Oct. 2011. <http://constitution.org/jl/2ndtr02.htm>.
Paine, Thomas. "Common Sense." Ushistory.org. Web. 15 Oct. 2011. <http://www.ushistory.org/paine/commonsense/sense6.htm>.
Reagan, Ronald. Speaking My Mind: Selected Speeches. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004. Print.
Taylor, Jim. "Narcissism: On the Rise in America?" Huffington Post. 28 May 2011. Web. 15 Oct. 2011. <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/dr-jim-taylor/narcissism-america_b_861887.html>.
Weeks, William Earl. Building the Continental Empire: American Expansion from the Revolution to the Civil War. Chicago, IL: Ivan R. Dee, 1996. Print.
Winthrop, John. A Model of Christian Charity. Diss. 1630. The Religious FreedomPage. Web. 15 Oct. 2011. <http://religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu/sacred/charity.html>.
Zinn, Howard. "The Power and the Glory: Myths of American Exceptionalism." Boston Review (1995). Boston Review. Summer 2005. Web. 15 Oct. 2011. <http://bostonreview.net/BR30.3/zinn.php>.
